The Russian Federation, owing to its expansive territory and copious natural resources, assumed a pivotal role in the Soviet Union’s economy. During the Soviet Union’s initial years, these resources facilitated notable economic progress, including the swift advancement of sectors such as mining, metallurgy, and heavy engineering, as well as the extensive development of the railway network and a substantial augmentation of the energy supply. The 1960s ushered in a second wave of industrial growth, which had a particularly profound impact on the Russian Republic. This period saw not only further expansion in established sectors—particularly in oil, gas, and electricity production and the chemical industry—but also a significant diversification of industrial production, including a modest increase in consumer goods manufacturing. Nonetheless, in the period leading up to the Soviet Union’s dissolution, the economy of both Russia and the Union as a whole was experiencing a downturn, with official figures concealing underlying industrial inefficiencies.

Following the Soviet Union’s disintegration in 1991, the Russian government embarked on a series of transformative reforms aimed at transitioning from a centrally planned economy to a market-oriented system. Key elements of these reforms included the establishment of privately owned industrial and commercial enterprises, supported by both foreign and domestic investment, and the privatization of state enterprises. In an effort to facilitate privatization, the government distributed vouchers to citizens, enabling them to acquire shares in privatized companies. However, these vouchers were often sold for immediate cash, with entrepreneurs consolidating them. Additionally, a system for commodity and stock exchanges was instituted.

Despite these efforts, the privatization process progressed slowly, with many entities, especially in heavy industry, remaining under state control. The issue of land transactions also sparked considerable debate. In 2001, the sale of land was legalized, but only for urban housing and industrial properties, which represent a minor portion of Russia’s total land area. Legislation concerning the privatization of rural and agricultural land was under consideration at the start of the 21st century. Although the 1993 constitution allows for full private land ownership, this practice had not been fully realized. Consequently, the shift to market-based agriculture lagged, with many adhering to the traditional collective system.

The reforms of the 1990s brought significant hardship to the average Russian, with the economy contracting by over 40% in the decade following the Soviet Union’s fall. The monetary system was in turmoil: the removal of price controls led to rampant inflation and soaring prices; the ruble’s value fell sharply; and real incomes declined precipitously. Conditions began to improve by the mid-1990s, but the recovery was disrupted by the 1998 financial crisis, which forced a steep devaluation of the ruble. Numerous banks failed, and millions of citizens lost their savings. Subsequent corrective actions included stricter licensing for private banks and a crackdown on widespread tax evasion. To foster business growth, the government reduced taxes for medium and small businesses and offered incentives for reinvesting profits domestically. By the early 21st century, these measures were showing positive effects on the Russian economy, which exhibited signs of recovery and stable growth. The devalued ruble and consistent income from oil exports facilitated investments in factories and enhanced the competitiveness of Russian goods in the global market.

In the post-Soviet era, while foreign direct investment was promoted, it faced challenges such as state intervention in industry, corruption, and a weak legal framework. The rise in organized crime further deterred Western investment, and despite a reduction in such activities in the early 21st century, significant barriers remained for both Western and Russian businesses. Government actions to increase state ownership in various industries, including the oil and gas, aviation, and automotive sectors, also discouraged investment from non-Russian companies.

In addition to economic restructuring challenges, Russia had to contend with severe long-term environmental degradation, a legacy of the Soviet era that only became fully evident in the 1990s. High-profile incidents like the Chernobyl disaster, pervasive industrial pollution, and the dramatic shrinkage of the Aral Sea due to water diversions were indicative of decades of imprudent resource use. These environmental issues added to the strain on Russia’s already burdened economic framework.

Russia’s economic landscape continued to resemble the structure developed during the Soviet period. For descriptive purposes, it is useful to reference the 11 traditional economic regions into which Russia is divided. In Europe, these include the North, Northwest, Central, Volga-Vyatka, Central Black Earth, North Caucasus, Volga, and Ural regions, while in Asia, they comprise West Siberia, East Siberia, and the Far East. However, the federal districts established in 2000 have started to supplant these traditional regions for statistical analysis.