Approximately 50% of the Indian population continues to rely primarily on agriculture for their sustenance. This figure has begun to decrease only in recent times after remaining relatively stable throughout the 20th century. Notably, the extent of land under cultivation has consistently expanded, now covering well over half of India’s total landmass, a ratio that is rare on a global scale. In the most fertile areas, such as the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the eastern coastal deltas, the ratio of cultivated land to the total land area often surpasses 90%.

The distribution of water for agricultural purposes is highly variable across the country’s diverse climatic regions. Outside of a limited area, the availability of water for agriculture is predominantly seasonal, hinging on the unpredictable southwest monsoon. Consequently, in regions without irrigation infrastructure, farmers are typically limited to a single crop cycle annually, and the likelihood of crop failure remains substantial in many areas. The potential for and actual progress in irrigation development also differ significantly across the country. Conditions are particularly promising in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, partly due to the consistent flow of rivers originating in the Himalayas and partly because of the extensive groundwater reserves found within the deep alluvial deposits of the area. In contrast, the peninsular region of India faces challenges due to its reliance on highly variable seasonal rainfall and geological conditions that often hinder well construction, thus restricting access to available groundwater.

For a nation as heavily dependent on agriculture as India, the availability of arable soil and water is of paramount importance. While India boasts large expanses of fertile alluvial soils, particularly on the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and other significant regions of productive soils, such as the Deccan’s black (regur) soils, the majority of the country is covered with red-to-yellow lateritic soils, which are inherently less fertile. The per capita availability of arable land is relatively low, and less than half of this land is considered high quality. Additionally, numerous areas have experienced a decline in soil fertility due to factors such as erosion, soil alkalinization from improper irrigation practices, the formation of hardpans beneath the surface, and continuous cultivation without replenishing depleted nutrients.

While the mean size of agricultural holdings in India is approximately 5 acres (2 hectares), and this average is on a downward trend, this statistic belies a highly unequal distribution of land ownership. A significant majority of farms occupy less than 3 acres (1.2 hectares), and the remaining land is predominantly in the possession of a limited number of comparatively wealthy small-scale farmers and landowners. The majority of agriculturalists possess holdings that yield barely enough to sustain their families’ fundamental needs. This situation is exacerbated by the volatility of the agricultural market and the unpredictability of the annual monsoon season, leading to a notably high rate of farm failures, particularly among smaller landowners. Additionally, close to one-third of all farming households do not own land. These families, along with those owning marginal amounts of land, are often compelled to seek employment with larger landowners or to engage in supplementary occupations, frequently those traditionally linked to their social caste.

In India, the sphere of agricultural technology has seen considerable advancements. Government-initiated irrigation projects via extensive canal systems, which commenced in the mid-19th century during British rule, have seen significant expansion post-independence. The focus later shifted to the development of deep wells, also known as tube wells, which are commonly privately owned. These wells employ electric or diesel pumps to extract water. Nonetheless, in several regions, these wells have led to the depletion of groundwater reserves, prompting initiatives aimed at aquifer replenishment and rainwater harvesting. Tank irrigation, which involves sourcing water from small man-made reservoirs along minor stream courses, plays a pivotal role in various parts of India, particularly in the southeast.

The utilization of chemical fertilizers has seen a consistent rise. However, since the late 1960s, the introduction of new high-yielding hybrid seed varieties (HYVs), predominantly for wheat and to a lesser extent for rice, has resulted in the most substantial production surges. These increases have been particularly evident in Punjab, where HYVs are almost universally adopted, as well as in Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and Gujarat. The success of the agricultural transformation known as the Green Revolution has been so profound that India has managed to amass grain reserves ample enough to withstand several years of severely poor monsoons without resorting to significant imports or experiencing famine, and has occasionally achieved the status of a modest net exporter of food. During this period, however, the production of coarse grains and pulses, which are less sought after than rice and wheat, has stagnated or declined. Consequently, the overall per capita production of grain has not increased as substantially as some advocates of the Green Revolution might suggest, and the risk of significant food shortages remains a concern.